ORISSA, REALM OF THE GODS
UDYAGIRI, THE CAVES OF THE ASCETICS

The ancient land of Orissa, formerly known as Kalinga, was characterised by a strong tribal presence. It was the conquest of Kalinga by Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty that decided the emperor's conversion to Buddhism: evidence of this is given by the edict that Ashoka himself had carved on a rock in the shape of an elephant at Dhaul, near Bhubaneswar. Today, Orissa is home to some of the most outstanding examples of nagara architecture.
Boasting a history rich in changing fortunes, this state has a number of architectural wonders linked to different expressions of Indian spirituality: the rock settlements of Udayagiri and Khandagiri were the dwellings of lain monks, the monasteries on Ratnagiri hill were a cultured and refined Buddhist centre, at Bhubaneswar the majority of temples were dedicated to Shiva while at Puri it is jagannath, a manifestation of Vishnu, who dominates.
The Chedi dynasty reigned in the Bhubaneswar area between 180-100 BC. The inscription in the "Hathigumpha" {the cave of the elephant) details the life and devotion to Jainism of their most famous king, Kharavela. It was Kharavela and his pious wife who decorated the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri. The cells are ringed with columns and architraves topped by lunettes showing mythical landscapes and are connected by elaborate friezes showing busy scenes from court life, hunting expeditions and popular stories. The cells face onto colonnaded verandahs or directly onto courtyards like, for example, the ground floor of the complex at Ranigumpha (the cave of the queen). Ranigumpha and Ganeshagumpha (the cave of Ganesh, the god with the head of an elephant) are the two largest and most important caves on the site;
Ganeshagumpha is decorated with a lovely frieze and has carvings of two round elephants standing outside. The best conserved cave in Khandagiri hill is Ananta where the cells are protected by armed dvarapala (the guardians of the doors) and open onto a verandah overlooking a wide courtyard.

Bhubaneswar, City of the thousand temples
After the glorious reign of Kharavela, Orissa seems to have entered a period of decadence from which it emerged in the 7th century with the Shailodbhava dynasty. This was followed by the Bhaumakara dynasty and then by the Somavamshis in the 9th century. With the Eastern Gangas in power since the 11 th century, Bhubaneswar became an important religious centre filled with many temples in the nagara style.
The profusion of buildings - at one time there were 7000 grouped around the Bindusagar, the sacred pool, but today there are only a few hundred - and the long period of time over which they were built (from the 7th-13th centuries) is a perfect opportunity to study the development of nagara architecture. Its beginnings in the 5th century are demonstrated by temples like that dedicated to Shiva at Bhumara and another dedicated to Parvati at Nachna Kuthara in Madhya Pradesh. Their inner sanctums are based on a square ground plan, have flat roofs and ambulatories and are each preceded by a porch with decorations on all walls. However, the first attempt at the construction of a shikhara was seen in the Vishnu temple built during the same period by the Dashavatura at Deogarh in the district of jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. The temple has three false doorways decorated by panels and a real entrance surrounded by a frame. This was the architectural feature that triumphed at Bhubaneswar. The detailed treatises on local architecture name the various parts of the temple, the deul, which is generally split in two sections:
* the garbhamuda, the inner sanctum covered by a spiral shikhara called a rekha for which rekha deul or bara deul (large temple) are the terms used to refer to the sanctuary and its covering;
* the mandapa or the jagamohana, mukhashata, bhadra deul or pirha deul in reference to the sloping covering made from horizontal sheets or pirha. Sometimes a connecting hall, the antarala, was built between the garbhamuda and the jagamohana. The deul and the jagamohana, which generally were built on a platform, were divided in three horizontal sections:

* the bara, the walls
* the gandi, the covering, which in the deul is composed of a multi-floor shikhara or rekha, the bhumi, and in the jagamohana by one or two series of pirhas, the sheets used for the creating the pyramid shape. To carry the weight of the rekha, the tower is set on a series of storeys containing empty spaces with flat roofs called ratnamudas.
* the mastaka, the upper section divided into the beki, the neck of the column; the amla or amalaka, the segmented cushion-like element; and the khapuri, the spherical vault supporting the kalasha, the water vase. A further bell-shaped element, the ghanta, is set on the jagamohana in the mastaka between the beki and the amta.

Although the inner sanctum is always square, as is frequently the jagomohana too, the exterior of the temple is broken up by several projecting sections pagas or rahas. These create constructions with three, five, seven or more protrusions around the walls of the shikhara. Of these, the central paga often attains notable dimensions and may be decorated with niches accommodating statues.

A strong contrast exists between the profuse decorations of the exterior and the absolutely plain interior in a symbolic representation of the route to be taken by the initiate who must detach himself from exterior forms to be able to search inside his heart for divine truth.

Two further areas are added to the garbhamuda and jagamohana in the most important temples: these are the natamandir (dancing hall) and the bhogamandapa (room of offerings).

The temples of Bhubaneswar are for the most part bluilt of sandstone without the use of cement, with plinths and enclosure walls made from laterite clay. They were constructed over three periods: the early period, 7th-10th centuries, of which important examples are Parashurameswar and Vaital Deul temples; the middle period, 10th-12th centuries, of which Mukteswar, Bhrameswar, Lingaraja and the jagannatha temple at Puri are archetypes; and the late period, 12th-13th centuries, of which Rajarani and Ananta Vasudeva are the principal monuments. The 7th century Parashurameswar is one of the oldest temples of all. It is rather small and stands directly on the ground with no platform. The rectangular jagamohana covered by a double flat roof is an addition at the rear. The fretted windows depicting dancers and musicians are magnificent.

Vaital Deul, dating from the 8th-9th centuries, is a lovely example of khakhara deul, i.e. a temple covered by a rectangular cupola similar to half a watermelon from which it takes its name khakhara. The harmoniously proportioned structure is preceded by a jagamohana covered by a two-storey flat roof with shikhara-type sanctuaries on each of the four corners. Of the many architectural features, the lovely chaitya windows accommodate statues. Inside there is an image of Chamunda, one of Shiva's wife's most terrifying forms, accompanied by a procession of Tantric deities. The nearby Shishireswar temple, also decorated with elegant sculptures, is attributed to the same period.
The jewel in Orissa's architectural crown is Mukteswar, dating from 950-97S and standing on a low platform, a typical example of a pancharatha (a temple with five projections). Its jagomohana is based on the classic style of terraced covering; it is illuminated by windows with diamond-shaped fretwork and has unusual internal decoration. The most characteristic element of this temple is the torana detached from the main building; the torana is presented as an arch built with horizontally- as opposed to radially-set stones, and decorated with reclining figures on two lovely floral capitals. A pool for ablutions stands nearby, particularly frequented by women afflicted by sterility.

Not far away and probably from the same period, Gauri temple, despite being a particular type of khakham deul, is very similar to Mukteswar for its wonderful decorations.
Bhrameswar temple was built in the 11th century between two enclosing walls on a platform using the panchayatana layout -a central temple with four minor temples at the corners - and is reflected in a square pool, It is mainly decorated with mithunas (pairs of lovers) and kanyas (divine girls) but also, has a rare form of internal embellishment the jagomohana has a lotus flower ceiling with nagas at the corners and processional friezes around the top of the walls.

Fruit of the experience of centuries, Lingaraja temple is ascribed to the period between 1000-1040. It represents the quintessence of Orissa's nagara style. Forbidden to westerners, it can nevertheless be admired from a raised platform at the corner of the wall that encloses it.
A natamandir and bhogamandapa have been added to the garbhamuda and jagamohana at a later date. The 146 foot high shikhara boasts 10 floors and its verticality is emphasised by the unbroken anghashikhara that overlay the projecting bands. The area between the beki and the amla is mediated by gryphons at the corners and four armed figures on the raha. The pyramidal roof in the jagamohona is split in two parts, increasing the monumentally of the whole. One of the many annexes surrounding the Lingaraja is the temple of Parvati from two centuries earlier; it has the same four-part structure and refined decoration of its larger neighbour.

The temple of jagannatha in Puri is a centre of devotion and forbidden to westerners. It was built in 1118 on the same basis as Lingaraja despite being much larger and incorporating about forty buildings. It was probably built over an ancient place of worship and linked to the tribal society that characterises Orissa's culture. Restored several times, the temple houses three effigies of jagannatha, the form Vishnu appears in as the Lord of the World, with his sister Subhadra and brother Balabhadra, a sort of totem with large round eyes.

The Rajarani, from the early 12th century, is famous for the beauty of its statues and differs from the other deuls in its unusual shikhara, similar to that of Khajuraho in that it has anghashikhara added to the main body of the tower but here they do not overlap as in other temples and are emphasised as distinct parts lending volume and a soft fullness to the structure. The images of the dikpalas (protectors of space) on the corners jutting out from the walls of the inner sanctum are remarkable: we see Indra, king of the gods, on an elephant to the east; Agni, lord of fire, on a ram to the south-east; Yama, judge of the dead, with a buffalo to the south; Nirrti, goddess of death, holding a head over a headless body to the south-west; Varuna, god of the ocean, on the makara to the west; Vayu, deity of the wind, with a banner to the north-west; Kubera, sovereign of wealth, on seven jars of jewels to the north; and Ishana, a form of Shiva, with an emaciated figure to the north-east.

The deul, ornate with nayikas (female figures in seductive poses), contrasts with the very plain jagamohana. Only the entrance is embellished, with effigies of the nine planets in the architrave and flanked by two columns entwined with naginis (deities partly in the form of snakes).

With a ground plan similar to Lingaraja, Ananta Vasudeva is the only temple at Bhubaneswar dedicated to Vishnu. It was built in 1278 by the princess Chandradevi.

Many other temples are evidence of the past splendour of Bhubaneswar, revealing exceptional beauty in the details of their architecture, statues and decorations with beauty used as a vehicle for spirituality.

Konarak, Surya's Carriage

Let us meditate on this excellent light of the divine sun; may he enlighten our mind". This is one of the Hindu world's most holy prayers known as gayatri in reference to the poetic structure based on 24 syllables, and savitri as it was dedicated to Savitar, another name for Surya, the sun god. The temple of Konarak, 37 miles from Bhubaneswar, is a celebration of this prayer and the power of Surya built around 1250 by Narasimha I of the Ganga dynasty.
The district of Konarka, named after a particular position (kona) of the sun, for which Arka is another name, is linked to the myth that tells of the cure from leprosy of Shamba, son of Krishna, thanks to the help of Surya. The devastation of the temple during the 16th century by the Moslems is cited in many texts, including Islamic sources. Deserted as a place of worship after its profanation, Konarak was sacked by locals for construction materials and by neighbouring rulers for statues and ornaments. The raja of Kurda excelled all others in this destructive diversion until the British stepped in to prohibit further removal. The Royal Navy supported this step as the temple served as a landmark and was known to western sailors and travellers as the "Black Pagoda".

When Fergusson visited Konarak in 1837, part of the shikhara over the inner sanctum was still intact but a decade later a tropical storm brought it down. Clearance of the site from the jungle began in 1882 and some of the sculptures were taken Lo the Calcutta museum in 1894. Excavations were begun under the aegis of the Archaeological Department of Bengal in 1901 and despite the dangers associated with the invasion of sand and unstable stonework, the consolidation work was finished in 1910. Chemical treatment removed the sea-salt, mould and fungus while the trees planted between the site and the sea limited the damage done by sea wind and sand. As soon as India declared independence, it set up a committee to continue the restoration work which is still in progress. The temple of Surya is enclosed within a huge wall with entrances on three sides. It was conceived as the carriage of the sun pulled by seven horses: three on the north side and four on the south (two are still in place) and supported by twenty-four wheels almost 10 feet tall along the plinth. For some the wheels are symbols of the 12 months of the year by day and by night, for others they are the 24 hours of the day.

The large room for worshippers, the jagomohana, is today filled and sealed to prevent its collapse. It is crowned by a pyramidal structure and terraces and the even larger deul, the god's cell now without its shikhara. On the three free sides at the base of the deul stand additional sanctuaries with external stairways that lead to niches holding statues of Surya.

The temple is preceded by a splendid pillared pavilion on a high plinth. The pavilion, once covered by a pyramidal structure, has a panelled ceiling and is richly decorated.
The detailed representations of the dancers - devadasis (handmaidens of the god) or mahari Orissa - have allowed the steps of the local classical dance, the Orissi, which were being lost by the beginning of this century to be saved. The pavilion, therefore, seems to have been a natamandir (dancing hall). As a basic ritual in the ceremonial of the temple, dance captures in movement the religious inspiration that statuary and architecture express statically, and while dance converts space into time, the other two transform time into space.

Other buildings complete the complex at Konarak. To the south stands the bhogamandapa with the remains of the kitchens, two tanks and a well; to the south-west of the main temple there is a second, maybe older, temple later dedicated to Mayadevi, a wife of Surya; while fairly close by stands a small sanctuary dedicated to Vishnu.

The huge statuary groups of great power and plasticity are the last of the significant finds on the site. At one time they stood in front of three flights of steps around the plinth: on the eastern side are two lions climb on crouching elephants as they crush a demon, to the north, are two almost life-size elephants while to the south, stand two war-horses with an attendant and a dejected warrior.

At Surya, sculpture and decoration play a fundamental role without, however, spoiling the well-proportioned architectural structure that balances the horizontal and vertical forces through the use of mouldings, friezes, pillars and miniature pavilions. Statues of deities, princes, court dignitaries identified by their inscriptions, ascetics, alashakanyas (reclining girls), nagas, naginis and mithunas alternate with trains of elephants, military parades, hunting scenes and caravans. There are also portrayals of scenes in heaven and of everyday life intertwined with tangles of flowers and ordered geometric patterns. Every single inch of the walls is sculpted, from the plinth supported by trains of elephants to the very top where a segmented amla sits. The wheels are a masterpiece of carving and act as a sundial with their 8 main and 8 intermediary spokes.

Built on sandy soil paying scarce attention to the foundations, the temple was constructed using laterite slabs for the plinths and blocks of kondalite -a type of gneiss - for the temples themselves. The stone blocks were brought from a great distance, possibly via a canal which has since dried up and grown over. They were then laid precisely without the aid of mortar and plastered with lime and sand. The sculptures were added at a later date and were sometimes made with the use of green chlorite. The most successful examples of sculpture are the cornice of the main gateway divided into seven elegant borders, the three statues of Surya in different poses over 10 feet tall in the external niches of the inner sanctum, and the base of the idol inside the sanctum.

The construction of the shikhara brought the height of the temple to over 195 feet. Wrought iron girders were used to create a support frame for the shikhara but it was unable to prevent its collapse.

Despite being despoiled, Surya Deul continues to be a magical place and its portrayals, many of which are erotic, extol life and the living power of the sun. And if the ruler and the high priest had sexual relations with the maharis to-invigorate and foster the fertility of the land and the population, thereby ensuring the perpetration of life (samsara, which, like a wheel, turns incessantly), the ascetics saw in the sun the power of enlightenment which would liberate them forever from the cycle of rebirth.

VARIOUS TYPES OF SHIKHARA
The shikhara underwent notable transformation over the centuries and from region to region.

Three main types can be identified:

» the latino, a term derived from lota (a climbing plant), has a square ground plan where small amalakas or amlas divide the tower into storeys but without interrupting the upthrust of the parabolic curve. Urushringas or angashikharas (miniature shikharas) are incorporated in the spiral construction and create ascending borders in the intricate structure which mark the corners. One of the best examples of a latina shikhara is at Lingaraja at Bhubaneswar.

» the sekhdri: groups a number of angashikhams of different sizes around the tower which accentuate the rotundity of the shikhara and smooth the angularity of the corners. Examples of this type are Kandaryamahadeva at Khajuraho and Rajarani at Bhubaneswar.

» the bhumija (daughter from the earth): has a circular or star-shaped ground plan with shikharas or other reproductions of miniature sanctuaries placed on top of one another in parallel rows interrupted by vertical bands.

The most important example of this style is the Udayeswar temple at Udaipur in Madhya Pradesh.